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t my neighborhood advantage shop, and Just about surely at yours, way too, it can be done to buy upward of fifty distinctive kinds of scratch-off lottery tickets. To do so, you need to be a minimum of eighteen many years aged, Regardless that the tickets look like the décor for any kindergarten classroom. The dominant themes are Major colors, greenback symptoms, and shiny, as in gold bars, taking pictures stars, glinting horseshoes, and stacks of silver coins. When you find yourself taking a look at a stable wall of these, Additionally they resemble—based upon the palette, font possibilities, and common flashy hecticness—the mid-nineties Web. Some of them are named for other online games, like the Monopoly X5, the Double Blackjack, along with the Relatives Feud, but most are straightforward about The purpose of buying them: Present Me $ten,000!, $one hundred,000 Fortunate, Funds Explosion, Income Is King, Blazing Warm Dollars, Massive Income Riches. When your flavor runs towards Rapid Ca$h or Purple Ball Cash Doubler, You should buy one particular for just a buck; if you favor VIP Club or $2,000,000 Gold Hurry, just one ticket will established you again 30 bucks. All this is before you get on the Decide on 3, Decide four, Powerball, and Mega Millions tickets, which happen to be comparatively staid in physical appearance—they seem like Scantron sheets—and therefore are printed out at enough time of buy.

The strangest of the various Weird matters about these tickets is that, compared with other usefulness-store staples—Utz potato chips, Entenmann’s cinnamon-swirl buns, $1.ninety eight bottles of wine—they are introduced to you by your state federal government. Only Alabama, Alaska, Hawaii, Nevada, and Utah are usually not in the small business of marketing lottery tickets. Almost everywhere else, Blazing Sizzling Funds and its ilk are, like condition parks and driver’s licenses, a government assistance.

How this arrived to be is the subject of a superb new ebook, “For a Dollar and a Dream: Condition Lotteries in Fashionable The us,” because of the historian Jonathan D. Cohen. At the heart of Cohen’s book is often a peculiar contradiction: to the just one hand, the lottery is vastly much less lucrative than its proponents make it out being, a deception that has arrive at the cost of public coffers and public solutions. Alternatively, it is so popular that it is the two incredibly beneficial for your private providers which make and promote tickets and financially crippling for its most devoted gamers. A single in two American Older people buys a lottery ticket at least every year, one particular in 4 buys one particular no less than when per month, and essentially the most avid gamers purchase them at charges that might shock you. At my regional retail outlet, some customers snap up whole rolls—in a minimum amount, three hundred pounds’ truly worth of tickets—and Other people display up each morning, Enjoy till they acquire some thing, then return from the evening and get it done all over again. All this, repeated on a daily basis at grocery suppliers and liquor retailers and mini-marts across the nation, renders the lottery a ninety-a person-billion-dollar company. “Us citizens commit far more on lottery tickets on a yearly basis than on cigarettes, coffee, or smartphones,” Cohen writes, “plus they commit far more on lottery tickets annually than on video clip streaming providers, live performance tickets, publications, and movie tickets mixed.”

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As those two sets of comparisons counsel, lottery tickets can look like possibly a benign type of entertainment or possibly a unsafe addiction. The dilemma that lurks inside of “For your Dollar as well as a Desire” is which group they actually belong to—and, accordingly, regardless of whether governments charged with advertising and marketing the general welfare really should be during the company of manufacturing them, publicizing them, and profiting from them.

Lotteries are an ancient pastime. They had been frequent within the Roman Empire—Nero was a enthusiast of these; make of that what you can—and they are attested to through the entire Bible, in which the casting of loads is used for every little thing from picking out the following king of Israel to picking who will get to help keep Jesus’ garments following the Crucifixion. In many of these early scenarios, they had been deployed possibly like a kind of bash sport—through Roman Saturnalias, tickets were dispersed absolutely free to friends, some of whom received extravagant prizes—or as a way of divining God’s will. Generally, nevertheless, lotteries had been structured to lift cash for public performs. The earliest regarded Variation of keno dates into the Han dynasty and is claimed to have aided pay for The nice Wall of China. Two centuries later on, Caesar Augustus started out a lottery to subsidize repairs for town of Rome.

With the fourteen-hundreds, the observe was frequent inside the Low Countries, which relied on lotteries to make town fortifications and, later on, to offer charity for the poor. Quickly adequate, the trend built its approach to England, where, in 1567, Queen Elizabeth I chartered the country’s initially lottery, designating its profits for “reparation on the Havens and energy in the Realme.” Tickets cost ten shillings, a hefty sum back then, and, Along with the potential prize price, each served being a get-out-of-jail-no cost card, literally; each and every lottery participant was entitled to immunity from arrest, except for certain felonies which include piracy, murder, and treason.

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The lottery didn't much unfold to The united states from England as assistance distribute England into The united states: the ecu settlement of your continent was financed partially by lotteries. They then became typical inside the colonies on their own, In spite of potent Protestant proscriptions from gambling. While in the Massachusetts Bay Colony, which held its very first authorized lottery in 1745, dice and enjoying cards were being forbidden even in private residences.

That contradiction might be explained partly by exigency; whichever its moral bent, early America was quick on profits and prolonged on the necessity for public operates. With time, it also became, as Cohen notes, “defined politically by its aversion to taxation.” That built the lottery an pleasing alternate for increasing income, which was useful for funding every thing from civil defense to the construction of church buildings. Harvard, Yale, and Princeton were being all financed partly by lotteries, as well as the Continental Congress attempted to utilize a person to help pay for the Groundbreaking War. (Lotteries formed a scarce point of arrangement involving Thomas Jefferson, who regarded them as not A lot riskier than farming, and Alexander Hamilton, who grasped what would turn into their essence: that everyone “would like a little potential for successful an excellent deal to a fantastic potential for successful minor.”) And, like Pretty much anything else in early The us, lotteries ended up tangled up Using the slave trade, sometimes in unpredictable ways. George Washington once managed a Virginia-based lottery whose prizes involved human beings, and one particular formerly enslaved gentleman, Denmark Vesey, purchased his flexibility following successful a South Carolina lottery and went on to foment a slave rebellion.

This Original era on the American lottery was introduced to an end by prevalent worry about mismanagement and malfeasance. Concerning 1833 and 1880, each and every condition but a person banned the practice, leaving only the infamously corrupt Louisiana Point out Lottery Company in Procedure. Inspite of its identify, the L.S.L.C. correctly operated across the nation, sending ads and marketing tickets by mail. So effective was it that, as Cohen explains, it took the federal governing administration to eliminate it off; in 1890, Congress passed a regulation prohibiting the interstate marketing or sale of lottery tickets, thereby devastating the Louisiana sport and, In the meanwhile, Placing a prevent to point out lotteries in the usa.

Predictably, from the absence of authorized lotteries, unlawful ones flourished—earlier mentioned all, numbers online games, which awarded day by day prizes for properly guessing A 3-digit range. To stop allegations that the game was fixed, on a daily basis’s successful number was based on a publicly offered but regularly altering supply, such as the amount of cash traded within the New York Stock Trade. Numbers video games were being enormously common in all places—in 1964, they raked in two hundred million pounds, about two billion in right now’s dollars, in New York City alone—but Specially so in Black communities, where by they provided a Significantly essential source of revenue. This was real generally for their organizers and runners, whose ranks incorporated Ella Fitzgerald and Malcolm X, but at times also for players who lucked right into a windfall, for instance Luther Theophilus Powell, who gained ten thousand bucks on the 20-five greenback bet in the nineteen-fifties and applied it to order a home in Queens for his spouse, daughter, and young son, Colin Powell.

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Sooner or later, quantities games proved so rewarding which they were taken above by arranged crime, from time to time Using the help of police officers who accepted bribes to shut down African American operators. Dutch Schultz and Vito Genovese the two employed the game to help bankroll their functions, and the Wintertime Hill Gang, Whitey Bulger’s crew, obtained its get started partly by running quantities in Somerville, outdoors Boston. From the nineteen-fifties, raising concern with regard to the energy and reach with the Mob culminated in a very Senate investigation, the Kefauver committee, which judged revenue from gambling to be the first money motor of criminal offense syndicates in the united states. This declaration, and also the torrent of stories coverage it produced, experienced a paradoxical result: it produced lottery video games feel so lucrative that, following many years of dismissing them as inappropriate for your honorable business of public provider, point out governments Once more started to look at obtaining in about the acquire.

It is at this point that Cohen’s narrative genuinely receives going; Despite the fact that he nods to the early heritage with the lottery, he focusses mainly on its modern-day incarnation. This began, he argues, when escalating consciousness about all The cash for being made from the gambling company collided having a disaster in state funding. Within the nineteen-sixties, underneath the burden of the swelling population, mounting inflation, and the cost of the Vietnam War, The united states’s prosperity began to wane. For many states, Particularly those who offered a generous social security net, balancing the budget grew to become more and more difficult with out possibly increasing taxes or cutting solutions. The problem was that both of those possibilities were really unpopular with voters.

For politicians confronting this problem, the lottery seemed to be a perfect Answer: a means to keep up existing companies without climbing taxes—and so with no finding punished in the polls. For them, Cohen writes, lotteries have been primarily “budgetary miracles, the chance for states to create income look seemingly out of skinny air.” For illustration, in New Jersey, which experienced no product sales tax, no revenue tax, and no hunger for instituting either one particular, legislators claimed that a lottery would usher in countless millions of pounds, thus relieving them of the need to at any time yet again contemplate the unpleasant issue of taxation.

Dismissing prolonged-standing moral objections for the lottery, these new advocates reasoned that, because persons were likely to gamble in any case, the state could possibly in addition pocket the revenue. That argument had its restrictions—by its logic, governments must also promote heroin—nevertheless it gave ethical deal with to individuals that permitted of lotteries for other factors. Quite a few white voters, Cohen writes, supported legalization simply because they imagined condition-operate gambling would generally catch the attention of Black quantities players, who'd then foot the bill for services that those white voters didn’t want to buy anyway, including better schools while in the city spots that they had lately fled. (The truth is, the oft-repeated declare that legalizing the lottery would just decriminalize present-day gamblers as an alternative to make new ones of all races proved significantly wrong.) Meanwhile, numerous African American voters supported legalization since they thought that it will simplicity their friction Together with the police, for whom figures video games had very long served being a rationale—from time to time genuine, in some cases not—to interrogate and imprison people of colour.

Lottery opponents, however, questioned the two the ethics of funding community services by way of gambling along with the amount of money that states definitely stood to realize. Such critics hailed from each side of your political aisle and all walks of lifestyle, but quite possibly the most vociferous of these ended up devout Protestants, who regarded governing administration-sanctioned lotteries as morally unconscionable. (Catholics, In contrast, had been overwhelmingly pro-lottery, performed it in large figures the moment it had been legalized, and reliably flocked to other gambling game titles likewise; Cohen cites the staggering incontrovertible fact that, in 1978, “bingo game titles hosted by Ohio Catholic higher universities took in more cash compared to condition’s lottery.”) As 1 Methodist minister and anti-lottery activist declared at enough time, “There is certainly extra settlement amid Protestant teams to the adverse outcome of gambling than on almost every other social problem, including the issues of abortion, Alcoholic beverages, and homosexuality.” These types of adverse outcomes provided fostering gambling addictions, sapping revenue in the poor, undermining primary civic and ethical beliefs by championing a route to prosperity that did not involve merit or exertions, and encouraging point out governments To maximise gains even in the price in their most susceptible citizens.

However valid these issues might have been, they were being largely dismissed. In 1964, New Hampshire, famously tax averse, accredited the 1st condition-run lottery of the modern period. Thirteen states followed in as a few years, all of them in the Northeast and the Rust Belt. Meanwhile, as Cohen recounts, the nation’s late-twentieth-century tax revolt intensified. In 1978, California handed Proposition 13, chopping house taxes by Nearly sixty for every cent and inspiring other states to comply with suit; during the early nineteen-eighties, with Ronald Reagan in the White House, federal funds flowing into point out coffers declined. With Progressively more states casting around for remedies for their budgetary crises which might not enrage an increasingly anti-tax electorate, the charm of the lottery unfold south and west.

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As Cohen relates in Probably the most fascinating chapter of his guide, People pro-lottery forces had a robust ally in Scientific Online games, Inc., a lottery-ticket company that initially manufactured a reputation for by itself by revolutionary scratch-off tickets. In combination with providing instant effects, these tickets, like Ikea home furniture, offer the charm of Lively participation, which supplies gamers the illusion of doing exercises some Regulate over the outcome. Scratch-off tickets débuted to excellent accomplishment in Massachusetts in 1974; by 1976, every state lottery experienced jumped over the bandwagon. But that triumph introduced a challenge for Scientific Online games, since it intended the offered industry was saturated. To keep growing its organization, the business established about persuading far more states to legalize the lottery. Starting up in the late seventies, S.G.I. started hiring lobbyists, contracting with advertising and marketing corporations, producing astroturf citizens’ teams, and spending an incredible number of pounds to influence voters in Arizona, California, Colorado, Iowa, Missouri, Oregon, and also the District of Columbia to move lottery initiatives.

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Scientific Video games was not the sole firm giving lottery products and services, but its competition experienced mostly eschewed lobbying, nominally from moral worries but seriously mainly because they were being hesitant to invest dollars they wouldn’t recoup if they didn’t land the ensuing contracts. S.G.I. received all-around this issues by making sure the lottery initiatives it backed contained language—allegedly meant to avoid the involvement of structured criminal offense—that demanded comprehensive money disclosures not just from each of the executives at businesses publishing a bid but from all the executives at their guardian organizations, much too. That necessity alone designed the bidding system way too burdensome being worthwhile for S.G.I.’s Main competitor, Webcraft Online games, as it was owned by Beatrice Foods, which at the time was much larger than Lockheed Martin, 3M, and Coca-Cola. The S.G.I.-supported initiatives also mandated limited timelines to the bidding procedure, supplying the company a arranging edge when rendering it just about difficult for anybody else to finish the paperwork in time.

Nonetheless dodgy this system could have been, it worked. Every single lottery initiative backed by S.G.I. succeeded—and, in each individual circumstance, the company was rewarded using a agreement. That meant its lobbying financial investment compensated off, spectacularly; in California, for instance, S.G.I. used $two.4 million to go a lottery initiative, then gained the resulting forty-million-greenback agreement. Wins like that quickly turned Scientific Game titles into an unstoppable pressure inside the lottery industry. By 1982, the corporation had printed its 5-billionth ticket and was generating one million far more each hour. Simultaneously, the lottery industry by itself experienced become unstoppable, also—owing to S.G.I. as well as the wave of legalizations, and also due to the introduction of the new edition of a very old sport of likelihood that, as Cohen writes, “basically reshaped the spot of lotteries in American society.”

According to a betting recreation at first performed in seventeenth-century Genoa, lotto is just not self-evidently groundbreaking—or, for that matter, self-evidently pleasing. To Enjoy, you guess a particular amount of figures from the specified assortment. The New York Lotto, For illustration, calls for 6 numbers concerning a single and fifty-9; the North Carolina lotto, five numbers involving 1 and forty-3. The percentages of getting every one of the quantities ideal are absurdly reduced—which, paradoxically, is why lotto revolutionized the marketplace.

Ahead of the video game was released, point out jackpots were fairly modest. Their dimension was restricted by the amount of players, because payouts mirrored a proportion of ticket income, along with by state lottery commissions, which established a cap on the prize dollars; from 1964 to 1979, jackpots seldom exceeded one million pounds. But lotto was a rollover game: if a drawing was held and nobody gained—a typical incidence, provided the percentages—players could hold purchasing tickets. For all those profiting through the lottery, this produced a virtuous cycle. Every time the pot acquired even larger, more people had been tempted to buy a ticket, as well as the more and more people acquired tickets, the bigger the pot became.

The complete matter was vastly counterintuitive—the even worse the odds of winning turned, the more people wanted to Perform. Alexander Hamilton was proper: to the standard human being, the distinction between just one-in-3-million odds and a single-in-3-hundred-million odds didn’t make any difference, even so the difference between A 3-million-greenback jackpot and a three-hundred-million-dollar jackpot mattered enormously. Recognizing this, lottery commissioners commenced lifting prize caps and including extra numbers—say, six from fifty as opposed to five away from 30—thus producing the probability of profitable even lesser. The Ny Lotto introduced, in 1978, with one particular-in-3.8-million odds; right now, the odds are a single in forty-five million.

Regardless of All of this, and also to the despair of statisticians everywhere, lotto shortly grew to become the country’s most favored lottery recreation. But Even though ticket gross sales and prize winnings soared, they did not accomplish that equally across the nation, given that rollover jackpots disproportionately benefitted states with significant populations and so extra likely gamers. In reaction, smaller states banded jointly to variety multistate lotteries, a trend that culminated in Powerball and Mega Hundreds of thousands, Just about every of which begun as a collaboration amongst a handful of states but is now performed all over the place the lottery is legal. The ensuing prizes are definitely astronomical; this previous July, two those who bought a lottery ticket in Illinois bucked 1-in-a few-hundred-and-two-million odds to acquire a $one.34-billion Mega Tens of millions jackpot.

In some respects, the trendy American lotto video game is a product of technological transform; it could not have existed previous to Personal computer courses that enabled states to find out kind of quickly whether or not any individual experienced procured a ticket With all the successful figures. But Cohen would make a persuasive scenario that it absolutely was also an item of cultural adjust: the tip of a shared reverence for middle-course steadiness as well as rise, in the nineteen-eighties, of your veneration of extravagant wealth. The many years through which lotto reshaped the nationwide gambling scene have been the yrs of deregulation and Reaganomics, Donald J. Trump and Alex P. Keaton, the première of “Lifestyles of the Wealthy and Popular” plus a remake of “Brewster’s Hundreds of thousands.” Pastors were being preaching the prosperity gospel; politicians have been singing the praises on the unfettered cost-free industry. Suddenly, Cohen writes, “it had been now not taboo to collect an enormous fortune; neither was it offensive to indicate it off. Wealth—not the prosperity of blue-collar employees though the fortunes in their bosses—turned a method of reasserting the bounty of capitalism.”

The irony, as Cohen notes, is this obsession with unimaginable prosperity, such as the aspiration of hitting a multimillion-dollar lottery jackpot, corresponded to a drop in financial stability for some Doing the job people today. Starting inside the nineteen-seventies and accelerating within the nineteen-eighties, the money gap in between the loaded along with the bad widened, position safety and pensions eroded, health and fitness-care charges and unemployment rose, and, for youngsters born in Individuals a long time, our long-standing national promise—that education and learning and effort would render them much better off than their dad and mom—ceased to generally be accurate. Existence, because it turned out, imitated the lottery: for many Individuals, it was obtaining tougher and harder to win.

The lottery was speculated to make all this much better, not even worse. Its advocates claimed that, by filling state coffers without the need of rising state taxes, it will keep income within the pockets of normal citizens. But this premise, which led state soon after point out to approve lotteries, was merely untrue. Evidence from the 1st legalized lotteries quickly put paid for the fantasy they would offer enough profits to fund A great deal of the company of working a state. In New Jersey, exactly where proponents experienced imagined proceeds to the buy of countless numerous dollars, the lottery introduced in thirty-3 million dollars in its to start with 12 months—about two for every cent on the state’s income.

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When figures like that proved regular of the era, legalization advocates, not in the position to provide the lottery as being a statewide silver bullet, ginned up other techniques alternatively, often with the assistance of Scientific Game titles. Rather than argue that a lottery would float the majority of a point out’s spending plan, they commenced professing that it might include only one line merchandise, invariably a authorities service that was popular and nonpartisan—most often education, but from time to time elder care or community parks or assist for veterans. A single advantage of the narrower method was that it designed campaigning for legalization simple. A vote with the lottery wasn't a method of supporting gambling but a strategy for supporting veterans; a vote against the lottery was a vote in opposition to instruction.

These strategiesหวย ลาว ย้อน หลัง have been terribly productive but, as with the sooner kinds, fundamentally misleading. For another thing, they, also, wildly inflated the impact of lottery income on point out funds. In California, exactly where an S.G.I.-backed lottery initiative passed following a significant-profile marketing campaign touted it being a boon for schoolchildren, the ensuing income included, in the lottery’s 1st year, about five per cent of the condition instruction spending plan. As of this calendar year, in accordance with the California Office of Instruction, lottery profits accounts for around a single for every cent of all K-12 funding.

But that was not the worst of it. Over and over, education and other line goods that served to persuade men and women to go lottery proposals didn't truly get any additional funding; instead, the income went in the point out’s general fund. Soon after this transpired in California, other states mandated that lottery funds move directly into specified plans, but, as is so often the situation, when just one loophole closes, One more a single opens. In Illinois, Florida, and Virginia, among other states, the lottery profits did certainly visit a designated education and learning fund—whereupon legislators offset Individuals gains by reducing the money coming in from standard appropriations. Eventually, Cohen writes, “the lottery supplanted, as an alternative to supplemented, point out investing on schooling.”

Currently, in accordance with the Countrywide Meeting of Point out Legislatures, lotteries usher in, on ordinary, about 1 per cent of point out earnings per annum. Like all revenue, it issues, but whatsoever variation it can make is offset by two difficulties. The initial is the fact that lotteries have made it more durable than ever before to go Considerably needed tax boosts, since, owing to a long time of noisy campaigning accompanied by many years of hefty advertising, the public wrongly thinks that educational institutions along with other critical companies are lavishly supported by gambling resources. The second is that the dollars raised by lotteries comes mostly within the individuals who can minimum find the money for to section with it. Each and every condition lottery is regressive, that means that it will require a disproportionate toll on very low-money citizens. Loaded people today do Participate in the lottery, certainly; amongst the biggest-ever Powerball jackpots, 1 / 4 of a billion pounds, was gained by three asset administrators from Greenwich, Connecticut. But the wealthy invest in less tickets compared to the poor (other than when jackpots approach ten figures); due to that and because their buys constitute a Considerably lesser percentage of their profits, taking part in the lottery provides a considerably smaller impact on their pocketbooks. The real difference is often drastic: in accordance with the purchaser financial business Bankrate, players making greater than fifty thousand pounds per annum expend, on normal, one particular per cent in their yearly earnings on lottery tickets; Those people building under 30 thousand dollars expend thirteen for each cent. That means another person creating 20-7 thousand dollars loses some thirty-five hundred pounds towards the lottery on a yearly basis. To put that amount in context, just about sixty for every cent of Americans have below a thousand bucks in price savings.

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Defenders of the lottery occasionally cast it like a tax about the stupid, which means either that players don’t know how unlikely These are to earn or they enjoy the sport in any case. This means that lottery paying out is a wholly own as an alternative to a partly structural selection, but In fact it is attentive to economic fluctuation; as Cohen writes, “Lottery income increase as incomes fall, unemployment grows, and poverty costs rise.” As with all commercial solutions, lottery revenue also improve with exposure to marketing—and lottery items are most seriously promoted in neighborhoods which can be disproportionately bad, Black, or Latino. In Texas, where by the minimum amount wage is $seven.25, you can buy a fifty-dollar scratch-off ticket at a Examine-cashing venue or pick up Powerball and Mega Hundreds of thousands tickets, like Snickers bars, whilst purchasing groceries in a Dollar Normal. Nor are point out lottery commissions earlier mentioned availing by themselves in the psychology of dependancy. All the things with regards to the lottery—from ad campaigns to the search with the entrance with the tickets and The mathematics guiding them—is meant to continue to keep gamers coming back for more. None of this is especially distinctive from your approaches of tobacco firms or video clip-sport producers. It just isn’t Usually finished beneath the auspices of The federal government.

In the final web pages of “For a Dollar in addition to a Dream,” Cohen, a fair and meticulous collector of information, at last puts his thumb on the scale. Thinking of the regressive mother nature of point out lotteries, their predatory practices, their part in fostering gambling addictions, the best way they discourage standard taxation, as well as their reasonably modest money contributions, he concludes they “shouldn't exist in the modern United States.” As he acknowledges, this recommendation is unlikely for being taken anytime before long; no condition has repealed its lottery in greater than 100 and twenty-5 years. Nevertheless, he argues, we should operate toward widespread-perception reforms, for example banning the sale of tickets online, capping the price of scratch-off tickets and the scale of lotto jackpots, and, Maybe most crucial, closing a loophole that leaves lotteries exempt from File.T.C. regulation, and thus free of charge with the constraints of truth of the matter-in-marketing legal guidelines.

What would come about if condition lotteries waned in affect or vanished altogether? Cohen certainly overreaches when he claims that, “with out this kind of blinding beacon, extra Us residents is likely to be ready to Feel critically regarding the financial forces that have degraded usage of social mobility and also have made it tougher for people to attain financial safety.” But he is true that governments inside a democratic Culture need to be inside the small business of improving the odds, not rigging the game, and that there are way more equitable and productive means for the point out to employ its mighty powers to further improve everyday living for its citizens. Given that the California Lottery set it in the 2013 promoting campaign, “Have confidence in anything greater.” ♦

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